The right tool for the right task: structured techniques prove less effective on an ill-defined problem finding task

Problem finding represents an essential skill, with research showing that training using structured thinking techniques can benefit performance. We examined whether such benefits would remain when addressing a more ambiguous type of problem. 118 participants were recruited and randomly allocated to one of three groups (six men, six hats, control) and, after reading a synopsis of their allocated technique, restated a problem in as many ways as they could. Performance was measured in terms of the fluency, quality, flexibility and originality of responses. Results showed those using the six men technique exhibited greater fluency and flexibility in their responses. However, their restatements were also classified as lower quality compared to either the six hats or placebo control. The reduced impact of the six men technique might, we argue, be due to the ambiguity of the problem, exacerbated by inadequate training

Exploring modality switching effects in negated sentences: further evidence for grounded representations

Theories of embodied cognition (e.g., Perceptual Symbol Systems Theory; Barsalou, 1999, 2009) suggest that modality specific simulations underlie the representation of concepts. Supporting evidence comes from modality switch costs: participants are slower to verify a property in one modality (e.g., auditory, BLENDER-loud) after verifying a property in a different modality (e.g., gustatory, CRANBERRIES-tart) compared to the same modality (e.g., LEAVES-rustling, Pecher et al., 2003). Similarly, modality switching costs lead to a modulation of the N400 effect in event-related potentials (ERPs; Collins et al., 2011; Hald et al., 2011). This effect of modality switching has also been shown to interact with the veracity of the sentence (Hald et al., 2011). The current ERP study further explores the role of modality match/mismatch on the processing of veracity as well as negation (sentences containing “not”). Our results indicate a modulation in the ERP based on modality and veracity, plus an interaction. The evidence supports the idea that modality specific simulations occur during language processing, and furthermore suggest that these simulations alter the processing of negation

Thinking hats and good men: structured techniques in a problem construction task

Problem construction as a sub-component of problem finding is often one of the initial steps in problem solving and research has suggested that actively engaging in problem construction can lead to a more beneficial outcome and facilitate creativity. Here, we examine two techniques that may be used to help ‘scaffold’ problem construction ability: the six thinking hats and the six good men. These techniques can require the participant to either adopt multiple perspectives, incorporating a range of specific questions, or utilise a range of simple open ended questions. We had 100 participants take part in an on-line study that involved presenting them with a problem and requiring them to restate the problem in as many different ways as they could within a 3-min time frame. Participants were randomly allocated to groups comprising the six hats technique, the six men, or a no-intervention control group, and performance was measured in terms of the fluency, quality and originality of the responses. Results showed that both six hats and six men techniques produced greater fluency relative to controls, with a more robust effect for those using the six men. In terms of originality, both techniques proved beneficial relative to controls, with a more robust effect from those using the six hats. Hence, both techniques benefited performance, though in distinct ways. These results are discussed in terms of the potential benefits obtained by explicitly scaffolding thinking

Either here or there: exploring conceptual distance using a novel clock face paradigm in a creative problem solving task

Compared conceptually near vs. far cues on a creative problem solving task. Group of 171 randomly allocated to 3 groups, 2 experimental groups used near and far cues (counterbalanced), 1 control group. Given 2 problems and asked to come up with solutions in set time. Measured fluency, quality, flexibility and originality. Overall, controls performed better than those given cues. Does giving cues constrain the idea generation process

A bridge too far: conceptual distance and creative ideation

Previous research has shown changing perspectives to be important in problem finding, with viewpoint-based techniques like the 'six thinking hats' and the 'six honest serving men' im- proving performance (e.g. Vernon & Hocking, 2014). To date, however, evidence for similar techniques based on conceptu- ally 'near' and 'far' cues, where conceptual distance is defined topologically in a semantic space, has shown mixed results. In a sample of 171 participants, we used two standard verbal problem scenarios together with a novel technique comprising six concepts that were either conceptually near or far from the problem scenario. Participants in the experimental group used the concepts when generating solutions; controls were given empty placeholders instead of concepts. Performance was measured for fluency, quality, originality and flexibility. Apart from flexibility, participants did worse when using con- cepts of either type in comparison to controls. For flexibility, a borderline boost for far concepts was observed (η2 = .03, p = .06). We conclude that the cognitive load overhead intro- duced by our concept-cueing technique, or any other similar technique that attempts to shape the creative process, needs to be minimised through a variety of methods before we can better determine its usefulness and, thus, the role of concep- tual distance in creative problem solving

The golden path: first steps in establishing order for two creative problem solving techniques

Creative problem solving (CPS) can be enhanced through training programmes and coaching on individual techniques (e.g. Scott, Leritz & Mumford, 2004). Vernon and Hocking (2014) recently investigated the 'six hats' technique of Edward de Bono (where each hat represents a perspective; the red hat indicates 'feelings') as well as a technique called the 'six men' (the open-ended question words 'who, what, why, when, where and how'). Both techniques showed an improvement in creative fluency and originality for a verbal problem finding scenario. This was followed up with evidence that each technique boosts creative performance relative to a placebo group (Vernon & Hocking, 2016). So far, the data are consistent with the importance of structure and perspective taking in CPS (Kuhn & Dean, 2004), but we can't yet be sure what it is about each technique that boosts performance. As a first step, we looked at the order of elements: is there a 'golden path' leading to optimum performance? In a mixed design (N = 128), we tested three independent groups of 'technique' (six hats, six men and control) and two repeated groups manipulating 'order' (forward and reversed elements), looking at problem solutions in two problem scenarios taken from Paletz and Peng (2009; e.g. 'You are a scientist who is studying monkey behaviour in Africa. You see some of the monkeys eating dirt. Usually they just eat leaves and fruit'). Our creativity measures were fluency, quality, flexibility and originality (the latter three rated by independent judges). Initial analysis indicates that the six men technique boosted fluency relative to the six hats and controls, but this was not influenced by order. Further analyses on the other creativity measures are ongoing

Enhancing creative problem solving and creative self-efficacy: a preliminary study

The ability to improve creative problem solving (CPS) is considered to be an important resource in a variety of fields such as education (see Murdock, 2003) and business (see Thompson, 2003). Previous research suggests that interventions aimed at training people to improve their CPS skills can be effective, however it is not always clear what tools are being used and it is sometimes difficult to untangle the effect the different tools are having (see Vernon, Hocking, & Tyler, 2016, for a review). This study therefore aimed to utilise an empirically- based creativity toolkit in an 8 week training program aimed at enhancing students' CPS skills. The intervention group was comprised of 33 psychology students who signed up to undertake 8 weeks of CPS training and the control group (n = 9) were matched for contact time, undertaking 8 weeks of cognitive psychology lectures instead. In week 1 (Time 1) and week 8 (Time 2) all participants were assessed using two Unusual Uses Tasks (UUT) and a Creative Problem Solving (CPS) task and were also asked to fill out measures of creative self-efficacy. Analyses revealed that whilst the control group showed no improvement on any of the measures from Time 1 to Time 2, the intervention group showed a significant increase in both their creative self-efficacy and also their levels of creativity on both the UUT and CPS tasks. Whilst a follow- up study utilising a larger control group is ideally needed, these preliminary findings nonetheless support the use of this empirically based creativity toolkit for enhancing creativity problem solving skills

The theory of planned behaviour, self-identity, and moral disengagement: what predicts sustainability at work?

Objectives: On the occasion of the Green Impact sustainability initiative at our university, we sought to identify predictors of sustainability-related behaviours (recycling, energy saving and sustainable transport choices) among staff. Design: A quantitative on-line survey was conducted among university staff. In line with the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), we measured intentions (to recycle, to save energy, and to choose sustainable transport), attitudes, subjective norm, and perceived control. Self-identity was added as a popular extension to the TPB. Additionally, we took one of the first measurements of moral disengagement in a sustainability-related study. Methods: All staff participating in the initiative were contacted, 130 responses were received. Correlational methods were used to analyse the survey data. Results: The TPB was broadly supported; however, perceived control was not significant in predicting recycling intentions, subjective norm did not contribute to the prediction of energy saving intentions, and attitude did not predict transport intentions. Self-identity, conversely, made a substantial additional contribution for all target behaviours. The moral disengagement measures were all correlated with sustainability intentions, but there were multicollinearity issues with the TPB variables and between sub-scales. Conclusions: The TPB is useful in predicting workplace sustainability intentions, but different predictors apply to different behaviours. Moral disengagement is another useful explanatory concept, but difficult to incorporate in the TPB. The consistently significant contribution of self-identity suggests that sustainability at work can be promoted by making staff feel like sustainability champions

Modality switching and negation: ERP evidence for modality-specific simulations during negation processing

The Perceptual Symbol System Theory of cognition (Barsalou, 1999) suggests that modality-specific simulations underlie representation of concepts. This is evidenced by processing costs for switching modalities. That is, participants are slower to verify a property in the auditory modality (e.g., BLENDER-loud) after verifying a property in a different modality (e.g., CRANBERRIES-tart) and faster when verifying a property in the same modality (e.g., LEAVES-rustling). The modality switch cost has also been shown to lead to a modulation of the N400 event-related potential (ERP) (Collins, Pecher, Zeelenberg & Coulson, 2011 using a property verification task; Hald, Marshall, Janssen & Garnham, 2011 using a sentence verification task). In a separate line of research, ERP studies have indicated that without a discourse context, negated sentences are more difficult to process than affirmative sentences, leading to a different N400 pattern for negative sentences than for affirmative sentences (e.g., Fischler, Bloom, Childers, Roucos, & Perry, 1983.) Unlike affirmative sentences, sentences containing negation show a larger N400 for correct, semantically coherent single sentences (i.e., factually true sentences) than for semantically incorrect sentences (i.e., false sentences). However, Nieuwland and Kuperberg (2008,) found that the pragmatics of the sentence can change this N400 pattern to one closer to affirmative sentences. The goal of the current study was to explore whether the processing of negation could be aided by modality matching information. Other evidence suggests that comprehenders create a simulation of negative sentences (Kaup, Yaxley, Madden, Zwaan, & Lüdtke, 2007), but it is unclear whether modality matching information could modulate the processing cost of negation. Essentially, can modality matching information as reported by Collins et al., (2011) and Hald et al., (2011) lead to a modulation of the N400 for true negated sentences similar to that seen when discourse pragmatics supports negation? Furthermore, we were interested in whether the modality switch effect would lead to a similar pattern in the ERPs as that found with affirmative sentences (Collins et al., 2011 & Hald et al., 2011). Using a within-subjects design we used 160 pairs of experimental pairs which were either of the same or of a different modality. All experimental items were either visual or tactile modality and were drawn from existing sets of materials (Pecher, et al., 2003; Van Dantzig, et al., 2008). For example, a different modality pair was “A light bulb is very hot” followed by “Rice isn’t black” versus a same visual modality pair “A giraffe is spotted” followed by “Rice isn’t black”. We predicted that the underlined word is where a modulation in the N400 may be seen. Additionally, we explored veracity by making half of the experimental target sentences false (“Rice isn’t white”). Participants were asked to judge whether each sentence was typically true or false. Our initial results indicate a modulation in the ERP based on both modality and veracity. For true (“Rice isn’t black”) and false target statements (“Rice isn’t white”) different modality pairs elicit a larger frontal-central N400 like effect compared to same modality pairs (Figure 1), replicating Hald et al., (2011). When comparing true versus false, the different modality pairs elicit a large posterior N400 for true compared to false sentences (replicating the effect for negated sentences, i.e., Fischler et al., 1983). However for same modality pairs there is a reduction in the N400 to true statements; no difference is seen between true and false statements in the ERP (Figure 2). These results replicate and extend previous ERP findings using the modality switch paradigm. The evidence suggests that not only do modality-specific simulations occur but they can even aid the processing of negation

Sustainability in the workplace and the theory of planned behaviour: Norms and identity predict environmentally friendly intentions

Social psychology offers an insightful perspective on the psychological processes underlying sustainability-related intentions and actions, at universities and elsewhere. Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is a well-supported model, positing that attitudes alone will rarely predict intentions and behaviour accurately. Rather, individuals are sensitive to social norms (the perceived requirements of a setting and/or a group to which the actor belongs) and perceived control (the sense that the actor is capable of the behaviour and the environment offers the opportunity). Recently, it has been suggested to include self-identity (the notion that the behaviour is part of who you are). This paper summarises previous research linking the TPB to sustainability, and then reports a quantitative survey of 130 staff members at Canterbury Christ Church University. An online questionnaire measured attitudes, social norms, perceived control, self-identity, and intentions relating to office waste recycling, energy saving, and transport choice. Overall, only self-identity and norms reliably predicted intentions to act in environmentally sustainable ways. Follow-up analyses suggest that different predictors were significant for different intentions, but self-identity always improved prediction over and above the original TPB variables. In conclusion, universities can best cultivate sustainability intentions by promoting favourable norms and self-identities